An inverse association was also reported between Undaria pinnatifida, Sargassum fusiforme, and Porphyra spp intake and prevalence of allergic rhinitis in pregnant Japanese women (n = 1002).268 The study did not measure iodine intake or iodine status, which would have contributed to the knowledge of iodine intake from seaweeds during pregnancy, since current recommendations in Australia and New Zealand limit brown seaweed intake to 1 portion per week in pregnant women.269 There are also concerns about the potential for seaweed to contribute to foodborne infections, as noted by reports of norovirus contamination of Enteromorpha spp270 and the presence of polycavernoside A toxin in Gracilaria edulis.271,272. ... Padina sp., Hormosira banksii and Sargassum podocanthum, were investigated for the chemical profile and antioxidant activity. The limited evidence that does exist makes some seaweed components attractive as functional food ingredients, but more human evidence (including mechanistic evidence) is needed to evaluate both the nutritional benefit conferred and the efficacy of purported bioactives and to determine any potential adverse effects. Bull. . et al. Francavilla M, Franchi M, Monteleone M, Caroppo C. Fayaz M, Namitha KK, Murthy KNC, Hormosira banksii: 70% ethanol at 30 °C for 12 h using a shaking water bath and a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:50 (g/mL) 1.6 g GAE/100 g d.s. Hormosira banksii; Media in category "Hormosira banksii" The following 27 files are in this category, out of 27 total. For example, up to 98% of the fat content of Undaria pinnatifida (1.5% dry weight) is digestible in adults.128, Tables 1, 2, and 3 present the total fat content of several brown, red, and green seaweeds, respectively, while Tables S6, S7, and S8 in the Supporting Information online present a breakdown of the lipid content. Nutrition Innovation Centre for Food and Health, School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom. et al. MacArtain P, Gill CI, Brooks M, Published April 1, 2015. Similarly, the higher content of phenolics in UAE extracts was reported by Dang et al. The Neptune’s Necklace (Hormosira banksii) being an exception. Consumption of hijiki seaweed, Imported Food Risk Statement: Hijiki Seaweed and Inorganic Arsenic, Toxicity of so-called edible hijiki seaweed (, Arsenic in seaweed—forms, concentration and dietary exposure, Arsenic species in edible seaweeds using in vitro biomimetic digestion determined by high-performance liquid chromatography inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, Estimation of arsenic bioaccessibility in edible seaweed by an in vitro digestion method, Toxic elements in food: occurrence, binding, and reduction approaches, Safety evaluation of organoarsenical species in edible, Arsenosugars in raw and cooked edible seaweed: characterization and bioaccessibility, Human exposure to organic arsenic species from seafood, Total and inorganic arsenic in fish, seafood and seaweeds—exposure assessment, Cadmium, lead, mercury and arsenic in animal feed and feed materials—trend analysis of monitoring results, Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess, Biotransformation and accumulation of arsenic in soil amended with seaweed, Arsenic: bioaccessibility from seaweed and rice, dietary exposure calculations and risk assessment, Dietary patterns and all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular disease mortality in Japanese men and women: the Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study, Dietary intake, eating habits, and metabolic syndrome in Korean men, Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP3), and breast cancer risk: pooled individual data analysis of 17 prospective studies, Serum IGF-1 concentrations change with soy and seaweed supplements in healthy postmenopausal American women, A case-control study on seaweed consumption and the risk of breast cancer, A case-control study of single and multiple stomach cancers in Saitama Prefecture, Japan, A case-control study of colorectal cancer and its relation to diet, cigarettes, and alcohol consumption in Saitama Prefecture, Japan, Dietary intake of seaweed and minerals and prevalence of allergic rhinitis in Japanese pregnant females: baseline data from the Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study, First norovirus outbreaks associated with consumption of green seaweed (, Foodborne intoxication associated with seaweed, Identification of polycavernoside A as the causative agent of the fatal food poisoning resulting from ingestion of the red alga, Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the late 1990s: the INTERMAP study, Adequacy of iodine intake in three different Japanese adult dietary patterns: a nationwide study. Aguilera-Morales M, Casas-Valdez M, Carrillo DB, Gressler V, Fujii MT, Martins AP, His feet dodging the sharp spires of mineralised paleogene sediment and enjoying the crisp crunch of Neptunes necklace (hormosira banksii-edible*) underneath them. Funding/support. Intestinal absorption of fucoidan extracted from the brown seaweed, Fucoidan and cancer: a multifunctional molecule with anti-tumor potential, Efficacy of low-molecular-weight fucoidan as a supplemental therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer patients: a double-blind randomized controlled trial, In vitro fermentation by human faecal bacteria of total and purified dietary fibres from brown seaweeds, In vitro fermentation and prebiotic potential of novel low molecular weight polysaccharides derived from agar and alginate seaweeds, Comparative study on the in vitro effects of, Structural characterization and in vitro fermentation of a novel polysaccharide from, Prebiotic effects of diet supplemented with the cultivated red seaweed, Laminarin favorably modulates gut microbiota in mice fed a high-fat diet, Digestibility and energy availability of Wakame (, Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol, Functional foods and dietary supplements for the management of dyslipidaemia, The anti-inflammatory effect of algae-derived lipid extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human THP-1 macrophages, Seaweed extracts and unsaturated fatty acid constituents from the green alga, Profiling of the molecular weight and structural isomer abundance of macroalgae-derived phlorotannins, Effects of extraction and processing methods on antioxidant compound contents and radical scavenging activities of laver (, New insights into seaweed polyphenols on glucose homeostasis, Marine algae as a potential source for anti-obesity agents, Antioxidant activity of marine algal polyphenolic compounds: a mechanistic approach, Anti-proliferative activity of phlorotannin extracts from brown algae, Antioxidant activity, total phenolics and flavonoid contents of some edible green seaweeds from northern coasts of the Persian Gulf, Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity in algal food products, Dietary factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability, Gastrointestinal modifications and bioavailability of brown seaweed phlorotannins and effects on inflammatory markers, Sargassum polycystum reduces hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia and oxidative stress via increasing insulin sensitivity in a rat model of type 2 diabetes, Antidiabetic properties of polysaccharide- and polyphenolic-enriched fractions from the brown seaweed, Antidiabetic and antioxidant effects of polyphenols in brown alga, Insulinotrophic and hypolipidemic effects of. et al. Fucoxanthin is thought to exert its effects by inhibiting the digestive enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase, which in turn affects lipid metabolism by modulating leptin and adiponectin, resulting in downregulation of lipogenesis and upregulation lipolysis.166,167 In several in vivo animal studies, fucoxanthin supplementation was shown to reduce blood glucose, plasma insulin, body weight gain, and accumulation of lipid in the liver; to decrease insulin resistance; and to improve the plasma lipid profile.168,169 Results of studies investigating the impact of fucoxanthin on cholesterol metabolism in mice have differed. and C.O’H. Red: Nori (Porphyra or Pyropia spp.) Furthermore, there are considerable safety concerns related to potential adverse events associated with seaweed consumption, particularly in light of the variable and potentially dangerously high concentrations of iodine and heavy metals (including arsenic species) in certain seaweeds.8,9 There is currently limited legislation to require food or supplement companies to disclose mineral, heavy metal, or iodine content of seaweed products or to provide guidance on a safe portion size of certain whole seaweeds in order to prevent excess intakes.4 Ultimately, if seaweeds are to contribute to future global food security, either in their whole form or via extraction of their nutrients, the industry should develop a sustainable heavy metal/iodine monitoring program or, alternatively, identify novel processing technologies to ensure that unsafe components such as arsenic are minimized to safe levels, thus protecting the food chain.2,10–14. An overview of the amino acid contents of several brown, red, and green seaweeds is presented in Tables S3, S4, and S5 in the Supporting Information online. et al. The fiber-induced alterations to the microbiota composition and the associated metabolites produced are increasingly associated with the promotion of gastrointestinal, cardiometabolic, immune, bone, and mental health.84, Owing to the range of proposed beneficial health effects associated with consumption of dietary fiber, there is increasing interest from the food industry in identifying sustainable, alternative sources of dietary fiber.81,83 Seaweed, with its high fiber content, is a promising candidate. Probably agardhii The Adelaide region is blessed with many hectares of seagrass meadows which havesome truly unique inhabitants. Arsenosugars resist degradation in the stomach and, upon entering the lower gastrointestinal tract, are metabolized to at least 12 different metabolites, including dimethylarsinate, methylarsinate, and dimethylarsinoylethanol, but the toxicity of these metabolites is unknown.232,236–238. Another study showed that 2 arsenic metabolites, DMA and 2-dimethylarsinoyl ethanol (DMAE), were detected in the urine of 5 volunteers who consumed 20 to 25 g of Laminaria spp (total arsenic, 43.2 µg/g): the peak ratio of arsenic to creatinine was 228, 158, 141, 72, and 70 ng/mL, and levels normalized after 80 hours.236. A number of edible seaweeds are recognized as novel foods in Europe, although the nutritional composition of brown, red, and green seaweeds varies between species, season, and ecology of the harvesting location.15 Therefore, there is a need to characterize the composition of seaweeds in relation to the influence of location and seasonality on seaweed content. . . In contrast, a 5-g portion of Porphyra tenera is reported to provide only 80 µg of iodine.202, Static in vitro digestion studies have reported the bioavailability of iodine in seaweed as follows: Laminaria spp (17%–28%), Sargassum fusiforme (12%), Palmaria palmata (10%), Undaria pinnatifida (2%–12%), Himanthalia elongata (4%), Porphyra spp (5%), Ulva rigida (2%), and cooked Himanthalia elongata and Sacchoriza polyschides (below the limit of detection).203,204 Boiling has been shown to reduce the iodine content of Alaria esculenta (from 670 µg/g to 165 µg/g), Palmaria palmata (97 µg/g to 66 µg/g), and Ulva intestinalis (92 µg/g to 79 µg/g), information that may be beneficial for industry to provide to consumers.204, In humans, urinary excretion of iodine following Ascophyllum nodosum ingestion was reported as only 33% (excretion of potassium iodide control = 59%).205 The reduced iodine bioavailability was attributed to reduced release of iodine from the seaweed food matrix (ie, iodine bound to proteins, polysaccharides, polyphenols, and pigments). [29,41] on Hormosira banksii and Sargassum vestitum. The remaining authors have no relevant interests to declare. Accessed December 20, 2018. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Other kinds of seaweed that are found on the New Zealand coastline are bladder weeds, Cystophora species – Gwen Skinner recommends eating the tips – and Venus’s necklace, Hormosira banksii, which looks like a string of beads. C.O’H. In: Borowitzka MA, Critchley AT, Kraan S, Peters A, Sjøtun K, Notoya M, eds. Scientific experiments and human studies to date have focused predominantly on brown seaweeds and derivatives, largely because of their commercial abundance and perceived sustainability. Methods of calculation. C. Ag. et al. While heavy metal concentrations in edible seaweeds are generally below toxic levels, bioaccumulation of arsenic is a risk, and more studies of heavy metal toxicokinetics are needed. The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs). There is considerable evidence from animal studies to support a role for an effect of seaweed polyphenols on glucose and lipid digestion and metabolism, giving rise to suggestions that these polyphenols may have potential in preventing diabetes and obesity-associated complications. et al. Seaweed may be an important source of iron, as Sargassum spp are reported to contain 156.9 mg of iron per 100 g of dry weight, and the addition of this seaweed to both wheat- and maize-based bread increased the proportion of absorbed iron.179 Elsewhere, Sargassum spp improved iron absorption from a rice meal, with the iron content of the Sargassum spp used ranging from 81 to 290 mg/100 g of dry weight over 12 months (highest iron content in July, and lowest content in January).180. The magnesium content of Ulva pertusa, Laminaria japonica, and Gloiopeltis furcata is 10.47 mg/kg (41.8% bioaccessible), 6.55 mg/kg (60.8% bioaccessible), and 8.18 mg/kg (72.5% bioaccessible), respectively, under simulated gastrointestinal conditions.181 A subsequent mouse study found that magnesium from Laminaria japonica was absorbed most efficiently, which indicates that magnesium intake from seaweed will vary between sources. These extractable PUFAs may have prospective applications as dietary supplements or nutraceutical products. Notheia anomala (ADU, A57145). Francesconi KA, Tanggaard R, McKenzie CJ, All authors (P.C., C.O’H., P.J.M., E.M.M., and P.J.A.) et al. Consumption of inorganic arsenic has been shown to increase the incidence of lung, bladder, skin, and kidney cancers and has also been linked to skin lesions, cardiovascular disease, neurological effects, and diabetes.233–235, Most arsenic species in seaweeds are arsenosugars, typically ligated to glycerol, sulfonate, or phosphonate. . Brownlee IA, Allen A, Pearson JP, performed the data collection. Longer-term studies are required to demonstrate the effects of alginate on appetite control and weight management. et al. Arsenic and other elements in algae and dietary supplements based on algae. et al. Almela C, Clemente MJ, Velez D, Montoro R. Risk Assessment Section, Centre for Food Safety, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. . To provide a basis for comparison, Tables S1 and S2 in the Supporting Information online present the same nutritional information for a selection of dried seaweed products commercially available throughout the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. et al. et al. Published January 2013. Hajeb P, Sloth JJ, Shakibazadeh S, et al. http://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/programme/programme_rafs/programme_rafs_fc_02_08.html. Speciation and concentration of arsenic in brown seaweeds (Ascophyllum nodosum, Laminaria digitata, Fucus vesiculosus, Fucus spiralis, Alaria esculenta, and Saccharina latissima),239,240 red seaweeds (Porphyra umbilicalus, Chondrus crispus, Gracilaria vermiculophylla, and Palmaria palmata), and green seaweeds (Ulva prolifera and Ulva lactuca)240 revealed that total arsenic content ranged from 4.1 to 111.0 µg/g, with the majority of arsenic present as arsenosugars (inorganic arsenic content was < 1.0 µg/g). Such information would aid the functional food industry in targeting optimal conditions for isolating specific bioactive components.16–18,Table 1,17,19–32,Table 2,19–22,26,27,29–31,33–42 and Table 319–24,26,27,29,30,36,43–53 present the macronutrient content of multiple brown, red, and green seaweeds, respectively, and consider a 5-g serving relative to reference nutrient intakes. A trade-off between iodine and/or heavy metal ingestion and the amount of whole seaweed needed to obtain meaningful amounts of PUFAs, protein, or dietary fiber may limit the recommended portion size. As shown in Table S7 in the Supporting Information online, Palmaria spp had the lowest ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids,19,28 whereas Gracilaria gracilis had the highest.35, Dietary reference values have not been established for PUFAs collectively, but an intake of 4% of total energy is recommended for n-6 linoleic acid.130 Foods with a greater ratio of PUFAs to SFAs may be favorable for maintaining blood LDL-C within normal concentrations,83 although more human intervention studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of PUFAs in managing dyslipidemia and attenuating low-grade inflammation.131, Evidence of bioactivity specific to seaweed lipids is limited, although male KK-Ay mice treated with 1% Undaria pinnatifida lipid showed a significant reduction in body weight after 4 weeks when compared with controls, while total weight of white adipose tissue was reduced in mice who consumed both the Undaria pinnatifida lipid and n-3 PUFA-rich scallop phospholipids.132 Other anti-inflammatory activities of seaweed lipids include the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in human THP-1 macrophages by lipids derived from the red seaweeds Porphyra dioica, Palmaria palmata, and Chondrus crispus.133 Lipids extracted from Gracilaria spp also inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and decreased the viability of human T-47D breast cancer cells and of 5637 human bladder cancer cells.134 Lastly, a C18 fatty acid extracted from Ulva lactuca was reported to exert an anticancer effect via activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway to promote scavenging of reactive oxygen species.135. . However, the digestibility of seaweed protein within the gastrointestinal tract will significantly affect the nutritional value of the protein, with protein–polysaccharide interactions reducing digestion efficiency considerably. Yum. Enteromorpha spp and Porphyra spp are reported to contain 63.58 μg and from 32.26183 to 133.8 μg184 per 100 g of dry weight, respectively. It is noted for attracting wildlife. Thanh T. Dang, Quan Van Vuong, Maria J. Schreider, Michael C. Bowyer, Ian A. On a gram-for-gram basis, seaweeds have protein and amino acid contents comparable to those of beef; however, seaweeds are consumed in much smaller quantities.55 It should also be noted that the protein content of seaweed is often derived from total nitrogen by using a conversion factor of 6.25 (Kjeldahl method), which likely produces an overestimate, given the nonprotein sources of nitrogen in seaweed. An acute study by Peters et al98 showed that an alginate drink enhanced self-reported satiety and reduced the feeling of hunger in a dose-dependent manner when compared with placebo. (2017) Polyphenols: Callophyllis japonica: Methanol at solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:10 (g/mL) Not specified: Anti-inflammatory effect: Ryu et al. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. et al. Pirian K, Piri K, Sohrabipour J, Extraction and purification of phlorotannins from brown algae. All authors participated in the writing and critical revision of the manuscript in a manner sufficient to establish ownership of the intellectual content. Search for other works by this author on: VOYA Products Limited, County Sligo, Ireland. et al. While regulatory bodies have attempted to provide guidance about arsenic intake, there is a need for clearer regulation and guidance regarding the permissible arsenic content of foods. Maehre HK, Malde MK, Eilertsen KE, Elvevoll EO. . Lange KW, Hauser J, Nakamura Y, Kanaya S. Collins KG, Fitzgerald GF, Stanton C, Ross RP. Published April 17, 2009. The ecological communities being investigated are rocky shores of either Botany Bay or Shelley Beach at Cronulla. Preliminary research shows that increased water temperatures can increase mercury absorption by fish, and the same biosorption of mercury may occur in seaweed.227 Considering global warming, trends in the heavy metal content of seaweed should also be monitored; likewise, the presence of rare earth elements, recently identified in northwest Mediterranean seaweeds, should be watched.228 The placental transfer of heavy metals from mother to fetus can cause neurological, developmental, and endocrine disorders in infants.230,231 Ultimately, the extraction of bioactive or nutritional components from seaweeds may mitigate ingestion of excessive heavy metals, which can be mutagenic and carcinogenic to humans.229, A major consideration for the exploitation of seaweeds as health foods or functional food ingredients is the need to speciate and quantify the levels of arsenic present in seaweed products. https://www.health.belgium.be/en/arsenic-and-other-elements-algae-and-dietary-supplements-based-algae-1-april-2015-shc-9149. If the potential functional food and nutraceutical applications of seaweeds are to be realized, more evidence from human intervention studies is needed to evaluate the nutritional benefits of seaweeds and the efficacy of their purported bioactive components. PART 2/2 – THE STORY (of how you are bound to come to seaweeds to replace iodized salt) Volume 160, November 2020, 111544]. Accessed February 7, 2018. In seaweeds, the main carotenoid with potential application in the food industry is fucoxanthin, extracted from brown seaweeds.163,164 Evidence suggests that fucoxanthin, through its antioxidant activity, may have potential as a food preservative to prevent lipid peroxidation in meat.165. . Hormosira banksii New Zealand Apr 2004 6.07 0.61 2.63 0.19 62.90 1.21 – – Maehre et al (2014) 19 Laminaria digitata Norway May 2010 5.31 0.53 0.99 0.07 – – – Schiener et al (2015) 17 Laminaria digitata Scotland Aug 2010 – Oct 2011 6.90 0.69 – – 70.70 1.36 – – Marsham et al (2007) 27 It produces its own food through the process of photosynthesis. Greenwood DA, Kraybill HR, Schweigert BS. The effect of sun-drying, oven-drying, and freeze-drying methods on the nutritional composition of the seaweed Sargassum hemiphyllum (Turn.) Fucoxanthin purified from Hormosira banksii was also evaluated for its contribution to antioxidant activity compared to phenolic compounds in the extracts. Table S1Nutritional information for a selection of seaweed products sold throughout the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, Table S2Nutritional information for a selection of seaweed products sold throughout the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, Table S3Amino acid content of brown seaweeds, Table S4Amino acid content of red seaweeds, Table S5Amino acid content of green seaweeds, Table S9Essential minerals present in brown seaweeds, Table S10Essential minerals present in red seaweeds, Table S11Essential minerals present in green seaweeds, Table S12Vitamin content of brown seaweeds, Table S14Vitamin content of green seaweeds, Table S15Heavy metal content of brown seaweeds, Table S16Heavy metal content of red seaweeds, Table S17Heavy metal content of green seaweeds. Krajcovicova-Kudlackova M, Buckova K, Klimes I, Sebokova E. Katagiri R, Asakura K, Uechi K, Once these seaweed-derived fiber components have been deemed safe, they will likely be marketed as nutritional ingredients, provided the associated health claims are substantiated. Probably S.decipiens Hormosira banksii Caulocystis species Sargassum sp. Several in vitro fecal batch culture studies have demonstrated the fermentability of seaweed fiber components, noting increased production of short-chain fatty acids and modulation of gut microbial communities.121–125 Modulation of the gut microbiota and production of short-chain fatty acids have been observed in animal studies employing a seaweed fiber–containing diet.86,126 However, thus far, the only health benefit associated with the prebiotic effects of seaweed fibers is the slowing of weight gain in animals on a high-fat diet.127 There is a lack of human intervention trials investigating the fermentability of seaweed fiber components and their potential to affect health outcomes.84, The fat content of seaweed tends to be low relative to total dry weight. Paul Cherry, Cathal O’Hara, Pamela J Magee, Emeir M McSorley, Philip J Allsopp, Risks and benefits of consuming edible seaweeds, Nutrition Reviews, Volume 77, Issue 5, May 2019, Pages 307–329, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy066. Mechanisms of action must also be elucidated to substantiate any future health claims associated with seaweed consumption and to support applications within the food and nutraceutical industries. A day in the sun that would not strain the melatonin of an Irish redhead. It’s mostly made up of the sugar ‘fucose’. Another parallel study in overweight men showed that consumption of an Ascophyllum nodosum–enriched (4%) bread reduced energy intake by 109 kcal and 506 kcal at 4 hours and 24 hours post consumption, respectively, compared with an isocaloric placebo.99 Similar results were reported when consumption of a preload alginate drink reduced energy intake by 44 kcal following an ad libitum lunch.100 A crossover study reported that daily energy intake was reduced by 135 kcal when participants consumed alginate (1.5 g/100 mL) prior to meals,101 but no significant effect of a preload alginate drink on measures of energy intake or concentration of satiety hormones in overweight/obese individuals was reported elsewhere.102 Alginate appears to affect appetite and food intake, yet research is needed to the characterize the action of alginates by examining both the relationship between structure and function (particularly molecular weight and the ratio of guluronate to mannuronate) and the role of the gelling capacity of alginate. There is also a wealth of evidence to support an anticancer function of fucoidan, but the majority of evidence is from in vitro or animal studies and is reviewed elsewhere.117 A recent clinical trial in colon cancer patients investigated the effect of an oral fucoidan supplement (4 g twice daily) administered in conjunction with chemotherapy.118 Patients who received fucoidan had a significantly better disease control rate compared with placebo control patients but showed no change in overall response rate, progression-free survival, overall survival, adverse effects, or quality of life. Christaki E, Bonos E, Giannenas I, Florou-Paneri P. Sellimi S, Ksouda G, Benslima A, The existing widespread use of these seaweed-derived fibers in the food industry ensures they are safe for human consumption, according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the US Food and Drug Administration. In muddy calm environments, the beads may grow larger to 20 mm in diameter. et al. Aquaron R, Delange F, Marchal P, Arsenic species may be categorized as toxic (inorganic arsenic, which are class I carcinogens), nontoxic (arsenobetaine), or potentially toxic (fat-soluble arsenic, arsenosugars, and other organoarsenicals).232 The health risks associated with inorganic hydrogen arsenate species are related to DNA damage, which predisposes cells to carcinogenesis. Randomized controlled trials with suitable biomarkers, as well as supportive in vitro and in vivo animal studies, are warranted to verify previous observations and eludicate the mechanisms of action of edible seaweeds in humans. Laparra JM, Velez D, Montoro R, Possibly Sargassum horneri Scaberia sp. Percent fat content is highest in winter and lowest in summer, and fatty acid composition varies by season.16,40,128 For example, both the lipid concentration and the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of Saccharina latissima grown in integrated multitrophic aquaculture were highest in March and November, yet lowest in January.129 Moreover, seaweed-derived lipids are highly digestible. Zhao Y, Shang D, Ning J, While this review highlights the lack of human intervention trials investigating the potential risks and benefits of consuming seaweed components, some observational evidence does exist.